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Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
www.PhosphoricAcidFuelCell.com

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

What are Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells?

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte—the acid is contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix—and porous carbon electrodes containing a platinum catalyst. The chemical reactions that take place in the cell are shown in the diagram to the right.

The Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell (PAFC) is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel cells. It is one of the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially, with over 200 units currently in use. This type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power generation, but some phosphoric acid fuel cells have been used to power large vehicles such as city buses.

Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells are more tolerant of impurities in fossil fuels that have been reformed into hydrogen than 

Phosphoric acid fuel cells are also less powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel cells are typically large and heavy. Phosphoric acid fuel cells are also expensive.  Phosphoric acid fuel cells require an expensive platinum catalyst, which raises the cost of the fuel cell. A typical phosphoric acid fuel cell costs between $4,000 and $4,500 per kilowatt to operate.

About us:

We provide architectural, engineering and project development services including;

• Anaerobic Digesters

• Architects and Engineers

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• Automated Demand Response

• Battery Energy Storage

• Biomass Gasification

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• Demand Side Management 

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and other architectural, engineering and project development services.

Our work is performed on a strict adherence to "vendor-neutrality" and seek to maximize our client's "triple bottom line" returns:  people, planet and profits.

To receive a preliminary, no obligation consult, email us a summary or overview of your project to:

What is the "Unified Smart Grid"?

The Unified Smart Grid is the name used for the future transmission power lines that would carry green electricity from the many solar power plants and solar power parks and wind farms that generate the power, typically in remote areas, to the "load centers" or major cities that would use the green power. 

Quite simply, our country's out-dated and inefficient National Electric Grid, lacks the ability to carry all the new green electricity being planned from hundreds of new solar power parks and wind power generation facilities.

The Unified Smart Grid will be a national interconnected network relying on a high capacity backbone of electric power transmission lines linking all the nation's local electrical networks that have been upgraded to smart grids. Europe's analogous project is sometimes referred to as the SuperSmart Grid, a term that also appears in the literature describing the Unified Smart Grid. 

Cost estimates to rebuild the nation's electric grid as a Unified Smart Grid have ranged from $350 billion to $450 billion.

Support for the unified smart grid came with passage of the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007.   Title 13 of this Act invested $100 million in funding for the years 2008 – 2012 and establishes a matching program to states, utilities and consumers to build unified smart grid capabilities.  It also creates a Grid Modernization Commission to assess the benefits of demand response and automated demand response and recommended a set of system protocols and standards to be led by the National Institute of Standards and Technology which would coordinate the development of smart grid standards.  FERC would then promulgate these standards and protocols for the unified smart grid through its official rulemaking capabilities.

The Unified Smart Grid received further support with the passage of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 that set aside $11 billion for the creation of a smart grid.

Building a Unified Smart Grid would help jump-start the renewable energy investments in solar power parks.  Thousands of megawatts of new solar power parks (both Concentrating Solar Power plants and Photovoltaic Power Plants) are being planned. Most are  located in the desert Southwest due to the solar energy resource. A Unified Smart Grid is needed to move the large amount of power, which is fairly concentrated, to the rest of the nation.  Without the new Unified Smart Grid, it would be impossible to distribute the green power to the nation. 

The new Unified Smart Grid is significantly more efficient than the present, nearly 100 year old technology that makes up our nation's present transmission and distribution network of how we get the power from central power plants to customers and major load centers.

Much of the new Unified Smart Grid will be comprised of "High Voltage Direct Current" transmission lines which is significantly more efficient than the present high voltage alternating current transmission lines.  

The new Unified Smart Grid will provide economic development, thousands of new jobs, and significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

What would the new Unified Smart Grid look like?

Source:  American Electric Power

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For more information on the Unified Smart Grid, visit one of the following sites:

Central Power Plant
www.CentralPowerPlant.com

Electric Power Generation
www.ElectricPowerGeneration.net

High Voltage Direct Current
www.HighVoltageDirectCurrent.com

National Electric Grid
www.NationalElectricGrid.com

Transmission and Distribution
www.TransmissionAndDistribution.net

Unified Smart Grid
www.UnifiedSmartGrid.com

Wind Power Generation
www.WindPowerGeneration.com

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You Can't Have a Unified Smart Grid Without:

Advanced Metering System  *  Advanced Meters  *  Automated Demand Response  *  Automated Energy Management

Battery Energy Storage  *  Building Automation Systems  *  Carbon Free Energy  *  Clean Power Generation  *  Cogeneration 

Compressed Air Energy Storage  *  Decentralized Energy  *  Demand Side Management  *  Dispersed Generation 

Distributed Energy Resources  *  Distributed Generation  *  Distributed PV  *  EcoGeneration  *  High Voltage Direct Current 

Load Leveling  *  Locational Marginal Pricing  *  Micro-Grid  *  Net Zero Energy  *  Net Zero Energy Buildings 

Nodal Pricing  *  Onsite Power Generation  *  Pollution Free Power  *  Plug In Electric Vehicles  *  Renewable Energy Parks 

Rooftop PV  *  Solar Cogeneration  *  Solar Power Parks  *  Trigeneration  *  Virtual Power Plants  *  Waste Heat Recovery

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What are Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells?

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) evolved from work in the 1960's aimed at producing a fuel cell which would operate directly on coal. While direct operation on coal seems less likely today, operation on coal-derived fuel gases or natural gas is viable.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell Design and Operation

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells use a molten carbonate salt mixture as its electrolyte. The composition of the electrolyte varies, but usually consists of lithium carbonate and potassium carbonate. At the operating temperature of about 1200°F (650°C), the salt mixture is liquid and a good ionic conductor. The electrolyte is suspended in a porous, insulating and chemically inert ceramic (LiA102) matrix.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell reactions that occur are:

The anode process involves a reaction between hydrogen and carbonate ions (CO3=) from the electrolyte which produces water and carbon dioxide (CO2) while releasing electrons to the anode. The cathode process combines oxygen and CO2 from the oxidant stream with electrons from the cathode to produce carbonate ions which enter the electrolyte. The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires a system for collecting CO2 from the anode exhaust and mixing it with the cathode feed stream.

As the operating temperature increases, the theoretical operating voltage for a fuel cell decreases and with it the maximum theoretical fuel efficiency. On the other hand, increasing the operating temperature increases the rate of the electrochemical reaction and thus the current which can be obtained at a given voltage. The net effect for the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell is that the real operating voltage is higher than the operating voltage for the Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell at the same current density.

The higher operating voltage of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell means that more power is available at a higher fuel efficiency from a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell than from a Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell of the same electrode area. As size and cost scale roughly with electrode area, this suggests that a Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell should be smaller and less expensive than a "comparable" Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell also produces excess heat at a temperature which is high enough to yield high pressure steam which may be fed to a turbine to generate additional electricity. In combined cycle operation, electrical efficiencies in excess of 60% (HHV) have been suggested for mature Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell systems.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell operates at between 1110°F (600°C) and 1200°F (650°C) which is necessary to achieve sufficient conductivity of the electrolyte. To maintain this operating temperature, a higher volume of air is passed through the cathode for cooling purposes.

As mentioned above, the high operating temperature of the Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell offers the possibility that it could operate directly on gaseous hydrocarbon fuels such as natural gas. The natural gas would be reformed to produce hydrogen within the fuel cell itself.

The need for CO2 in the oxidant stream requires that CO2 from the spent anode gas be collected and mixed with the incoming air stream. Before this can be done, any residual hydrogen in the spent fuel stream must be burned. Future systems may incorporate membrane separators to remove the hydrogen for recirculation back to the fuel stream.

At cell operating temperatures of 1200°F (650°C) noble metal catalysts are not required. The anode is a highly porous sintered nickel powder, alloyed with chromium to prevent agglomeration and creep at operating temperatures. The cathode is a porous nickel oxide material doped with lithium. Significant technology has been developed to provide electrode structures which position the electrolyte with respect to the electrodes and maintain that position while allowing for some electrolyte boil-off during operation. The electrolyte boil-off has an insignificant impact on cell stack life. A more significant factor of life expectancy has to do with corrosion of the cathode.

The Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell operating temperature is about 1200°F (650°C). At this temperature the salt mixture is liquid and is a good conductor. The cell performance is sensitive to operating temperature. A change in cell temperature from 1200°F (650°C) to 1110°F (600°C) results in a drop in cell voltage of almost 15%. The reduction in cell voltage is due to increased ionic and electrical resistance and a reduction in electrode kinetics. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for natural gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military applications. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium aluminum oxide (LiAlO₂) matrix. Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of 650°C (roughly 1,200°F) and above, non-precious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode, reducing costs.

Improved efficiency is another reason Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells offer significant cost reductions over Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs). Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells can reach efficiencies approaching 60 percent, considerably higher than the 37-42 percent efficiencies of a phosphoric acid fuel cell plant. When the waste heat is captured and used, overall fuel efficiencies can be as high as 85 percent.

Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells don't require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to the high temperatures at which Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost.

Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are not prone to carbon monoxide or carbon dioxide "poisoning" —they can even use carbon oxides as fuel—making them more attractive for fueling with gases made from coal. Because they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, scientists believe that they could even be capable of internal reforming of coal, assuming they can be made resistant to impurities such as sulfur and particulates that result from converting coal, a dirtier fossil fuel source than many others, into hydrogen.

The primary disadvantage of current Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell technology is durability. The high temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life. Scientists are currently exploring corrosion-resistant materials for components as well as fuel cell designs that increase cell life without decreasing performance.

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Hydrogen Fuel Cell
www.HydrogenFuelCell.net

What is a Hydrogen Fuel Cell?

Hydrogen's potential use in fuel and energy applications includes powering vehicles, running turbines or fuel cells to produce electricity, and generating heat and electricity for buildings. The current focus is on hydrogen's use in fuel cells.

A fuel cell works like a battery but does not run down or need recharging. It will produce electricity and heat as long as fuel (hydrogen) is supplied. A fuel cell consists of two electrodes—a negative electrode (or anode) and a positive electrode (or cathode)—sandwiched around an electrolyte. Hydrogen is fed to the anode, and oxygen is fed to the cathode. Activated by a catalyst, hydrogen atoms separate into protons and electrons, which take different paths to the cathode. The electrons go through an external circuit, creating a flow of electricity. The protons migrate through the electrolyte to the cathode, where they reunite with oxygen and the electrons to produce water and heat. Fuel cells can be used to power vehicles or to provide electricity and heat to buildings. 

The primary fuel cell technologies under development are: 


Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells

A phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) consists of an anode and a cathode made of a finely dispersed platinum catalyst on carbon paper, and a silicon carbide matrix that holds the phosphoric acid electrolyte. This is the most commercially developed type of fuel cell and is being used in hotels, hospitals, and office buildings. The phosphoric acid fuel cell can also be used in large vehicles, such as buses. 


Solid Oxide Fuel Cells

Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFC) currently under development use a thin layer of zirconium oxide as a solid ceramic electrolyte, and include a lanthanum manganate cathode and a nickel-zirconia anode. This is a promising option for high-powered applications, such as industrial uses or central electricity generating stations. 


Direct-Methanol Fuel Cells

A relatively new member of the fuel-cell family, the direct-methanol fuel cell (DMFC) is similar to the PEM cell in that it uses a polymer membrane as an electrolyte. However, a catalyst on the DMFC anode draws hydrogen from liquid methanol, eliminating the need for a fuel reformer. 


What is Hydrogen?

Hydrogen is the simplest and most common element in the universe. It has the highest energy content per unit of weight—52,000 British Thermal Units (Btu) per pound (or 120.7 kilojoules per gram)—of any known fuel. Moreover, when cooled to a liquid state, this low-weight fuel takes up 1/700 as much space as it does in its gaseous state. This is one reason hydrogen is used as a fuel for rocket and spacecraft propulsion, which requires fuel that is low-weight, compact, and has a high energy content. 

In a free state and under normal conditions, hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, and tasteless gas. The basic hydrogen (H) molecule exists as two atoms bound together by shared electrons. Each atom is composed of one proton and one orbiting electron. Since hydrogen is about 1/14 as dense as air, some scientists believe it to be the source of all other elements through the process of nuclear fusion. It usually exists in combination with other elements, such as oxygen in water, carbon in methane, and in trace elements as organic compounds. Because it is so chemically active, it rarely stands alone as an element. 

When burned (or combined) with pure oxygen, the only by products are heat and water. When burned (or combined) with air, which is about 68% nitrogen, some oxides of nitrogen (Nitrogen Oxides or NOx) are formed. Even then, burning hydrogen produces less air pollutants relative to fossil fuels. 

Producing HydrogenHydrogen bound in organic matter and in water makes up 70% of the earth's surface. Breaking up these bonds in water allows us produce hydrogen and then to use it as a fuel. There are numerous processes that can be used to break these bonds. Described below are a few methods for producing hydrogen that are currently used, or are under research and development. 

Most of the hydrogen now produced in the United States is on an industrial scale by the process of steam reforming, or as a byproduct of petroleum refining and chemicals production. Steam reforming uses thermal energy to separate hydrogen from the carbon components in methane and methanol, and involves the reaction of these fuels with steam on catalytic surfaces. The first step of the reaction decomposes the fuel into hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Then a "shift reaction" changes the carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and hydrogen. These reactions occur at temperatures of 392° F (200 ° C) or greater. 

Another way to produce hydrogen is by electrolysis. Electrolysis separates the elements of water—H and oxygen (O)—by charging water with an electrical current. Adding an electrolyte such as salt improves the conductivity of the water and increases the efficiency of the process. The charge breaks the chemical bond between the hydrogen and oxygen and splits apart the atomic components, creating charged particles called ions. The ions form at two poles: the anode, which is positively charged, and the cathode, which is negatively charged. Hydrogen gathers at the cathode and the anode attracts oxygen. A voltage of 1.24 Volts is necessary to separate hydrogen from oxygen in pure water at 77° Fahrenheit (F) and 14.7 pounds per square inch pressure [25° Celsius (C) and 1.03 kilograms (kg) per centimeter squared.] This voltage requirement increases or decreases with changes in temperature and pressure. 

The smallest amount of electricity necessary to electrolyze one mole of water is 65.3 Watt-hours (at 77° F; 25 degrees C). Producing one cubit foot of hydrogen requires 0.14 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity (or 4.8 kWh per cubic meter). 

Renewable energy sources can produce electricity for electrolysis. For example, Humboldt State University's Schatz Energy Research Center designed and built a stand-alone solar hydrogen system. The system uses a 9.2 kilowatt (KW) photovoltaic (PV) array to provide power to compressors that aerate fish tanks. The power not used to run the compressors runs a 7.2 kilowatt bipolar alkaline electrolyzer. The electrolyzer can produce 53 standard cubic feet of hydrogen per hour (25 liters per minute). The unit has been operating without supervision since 1993. When there is not enough power from the PV array, the hydrogen provides fuel for a 1.5 kilowatt proton exchange membrane fuel cell to provide power for the compressors. 

Steam electrolysis is a variation of the conventional electrolysis process. Some of the energy needed to split the water is added as heat instead of electricity, making the process more efficient than conventional electrolysis. At 2,500 degrees Celsius water decomposes into hydrogen and oxygen. This heat could be provided by a concentrating solar energy device. The problem here is to prevent the hydrogen and oxygen from recombining at the high temperatures used in the process. 

Thermochemical water splitting uses chemicals such as bromine or iodine, assisted by heat. This causes the water molecule to split. It takes several steps—usually three—to accomplish this entire process. 

Photoelectrochemical processes use two types of electrochemical systems to produce hydrogen. One uses soluble metal complexes as a catalyst, while the other uses semiconductor surfaces. When the soluble metal complex dissolves, the complex absorbs solar energy and produces an electrical charge that drives the water splitting reaction. This process mimics photosynthesis. 

The other method uses semiconducting electrodes in a photochemical cell to convert optical energy into chemical energy. The semiconductor surface serves two functions, to absorb solar energy and to act as an electrode. Light-induced corrosion limits the useful life of the semiconductor. 

Researchers at the University of Tennessee and U.S. Department of Energy's (DOE) Oak Ridge National Laboratory are researching ways to use photosynthesis to produce hydrogen from sunlight. The researchers extracted two photosynthetic complexes from spinach plants; called Photosystem I and Photosystem II. The two work together to produce carbohydrates for the plant. By attaching platinum atoms to the Photosystem I complexes, the researchers were able to produce hydrogen from visible light. Unfortunately, the process required the use of an added chemical that makes the overall process impractical, but the achievement shows potential. The researchers are working to combine the platinum-Photosystem I complexes with the Photosystem II complexes, forming a molecular system that can convert light and water directly into hydrogen, without help from an added chemical. 

Biological and photobiological processes can use algae and bacteria to produce hydrogen. Under specific conditions, the pigments in certain types of algae absorb solar energy. The enzyme in the cell acts as a catalyst to split the water molecules. Some bacteria are also capable of producing hydrogen, but unlike algae they require a substrate to grow on. The organisms not only produce hydrogen, but can clean up pollution as well. 

Research funded by DOE has led to the discovery of a mechanism to produce significant quantities of hydrogen from algae. Scientists have known for decades that algae produce trace amounts of hydrogen, but had not found a feasible method to increase the production of hydrogen. Scientists from the University of California (UC), Berkeley, and the U.S. DOE's National Renewable Energy Laboratory found the key. After allowing the algae culture to grow under normal conditions, the research team deprived it of both sulfur and oxygen, causing it to switch to an alternate metabolism that generates hydrogen. After several days of generating hydrogen, the algae culture was returned to normal conditions for a few days, allowing it to store up more energy. The process could be repeated many times. Producing hydrogen from algae could eventually provide a cost-effective and practical means to convert sunlight into hydrogen. 

Another source of hydrogen produced through natural processes is methane and ethanol. Methane (CH4) is a component of "biogas" that is produced by anaerobic bacteria. Anaerobic bacteria occur widely throughout the environment. They break down or "digest" organic material in the absence of oxygen and produce biogas as a waste product. Sources of biogas include landfills, and livestock waste and municipal sewage treatment facilities. Methane is also the principal component of "natural gas" (a major heating and power plant fuel) produced by anaerobic bacteria eons ago. Ethanol is produced by the fermentation of biomass. Most fuel ethanol produced in the United States is made from corn. 

Chemical engineers at the University of Wisconsin-Madison have developed a process to produce hydrogen from glucose, a sugar produced by many plants. The process shows particular promise because it occurs at relatively low temperatures, and can produce fuel-cell-grade hydrogen in a single step. Glucose is manufactured in vast quantities from corn starch, but can also be derived from sugar beets or low-cost waste streams like paper mill sludge, cheese whey, corn stover or wood waste. 

The United States, Japan, Canada, and France have investigated thermal water splitting, a radically different approach to creating hydrogen. This process uses heat of up to 5,430°F (3,000°C) to split water molecules. 

Potential Uses for Hydrogen

When properly stored, hydrogen as a fuel burns in either a gaseous or liquid state. Motor vehicles and furnaces can be converted to use hydrogen as a fuel. Hydrogen has actually been used in the transportation, industrial, and residential sectors in the United States for many years. Many people in the late 19th century burned a fuel called "town gas," which is a mixture of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Several countries, including Brazil and Germany, still distribute this fuel. Hydrogen was used in early "hot-air" balloons, and later in airships (dirigibles) during the early 1900's. Gaseous hydrogen was used in 1820 as fuel for one of the earliest internal combustion engines. The U.S. Air Force had a secret, multi-million dollar program during the 1950's, code-named "Suntan," to develop hydrogen as a fuel for airplanes. Currently, industries use large quantities of hydrogen for refining petroleum, and for producing ammonia and methanol. The Space Shuttle uses hydrogen as fuel for its rockets. Automobile manufacturers have developed hydrogen-powered cars. 

Burning hydrogen creates less air pollution than gasoline or diesel. Hydrogen also has a higher flame speed, wider flammability limits, higher detonation temperature, burns hotter, and takes less energy to ignite than gasoline. This means that hydrogen burns faster, but carries the danger of pre-ignition and flashback. While hydrogen has its advantages as a vehicle fuel it still has a long way to go before it can be used as a substitute for gasoline. This is mainly due to the investment required to develop a hydrogen production and distribution infrastructure. 

However, things are getting started in this regard. Vehicle manufacturers Honda and BMW have set up hydrogen fueling stations as part of their efforts to develop fuel cell powered cars. At Honda's research and development center in Torrance, California, a PV array electrolyses hydrogen from water. The array generates enough hydrogen to power one fuel-cell vehicle. Additional power from the power grid is used to increase the hydrogen production capacity. The new station is supporting Honda's fuel cell vehicle development program for hydrogen production, storage, and fueling. Honda and a fuel cell developer are also working together on a "home" hydrogen refueling system for fuel cell vehicles. BMW opened a hydrogen fueling station at the company's engineering and emissions control test center in Oxnard, California. BMW is taking a different approach than most car companies, burning hydrogen directly in advanced internal-combustion engines, and is testing these vehicles at the Oxnard facility. 

The California Fuel Cell Partnership (CaFCP) is also building a hydrogen infrastructure. The CaFCP commissioned its first "satellite" hydrogen fueling system in late October 2002, in Richmond, California, about 70 miles from the CaFCP headquarters and a primary refueling facility in West Sacramento. This extends the range over which the CaFCP's prototype fuel cell vehicles can be driven. The fueling system uses electrolysis to generate hydrogen from water and includes a storage unit capable of holding 104 pounds (47 kilograms) of hydrogen. It is capable of fueling a small fleet of vehicles and requires only one or two minutes per refueling. 

In November 2002, the world's first hydrogen energy station that can provide fuel for vehicles and also produce electricity opened in Las Vegas Nevada. The station is located in the city's vehicle maintenance and operation service center. It combines an on-site hydrogen generator, compressor, liquid and gaseous hydrogen storage tanks, dispensing systems, and a stationary fuel cell. It is capable of dispensing hydrogen, hydrogen-enriched natural gas, and compressed natural gas. DOE is also working with the city to convert municipal vehicles to operate on hydrogen. 

Fuel cells are a type of technology that use hydrogen to produce useful energy. In fuel cells, electrolysis is reversed by combining hydrogen and oxygen through an electrochemical process, which produces electricity, heat, and water. The U.S. space program has used fuel cells to power spacecraft for decades. Fuel cells capable of powering automobiles and buses have been and are being developed. Several companies are developing fuel cells for stationary power generation. Most major automobile manufacturers are developing fuel cell powered automobiles. 

Hydrogen could be considered a way to store energy produced from renewable resources such as solar, wind, biomass, hydro, and geothermal. For example, when the sun is shining, solar photovoltaic systems can provide the electricity needed to separate the hydrogen (as described above regarding Humboldt State University's Research Center). The hydrogen could then be stored and burned as fuel, or to operate a fuel cell to generate electricity at night or during cloudy periods. 

Storing Hydrogen

In order to use hydrogen on a large scale, safe, practical storage systems must be developed, especially for automobiles. Although hydrogen can be stored as a liquid, it is a difficult process because the hydrogen must be cooled to -423° Fahrenheit (-253° Celsius). Refrigerating hydrogen to this temperature uses the equivalent of 25% to 30% of its energy content, and requires special materials and handling. To cool one pound (0.45 kg) of hydrogen requires 5 kWh of electrical energy. 

Hydrogen may also be stored as a gas, which uses less energy than making liquid hydrogen. As a gas, it must be pressurized to store any appreciable amount. For large-scale use, pressurized Hydrogen gas could be stored in caverns, gas fields, and mines. The hydrogen gas could then be piped into individual homes in the same way as natural gas. Though this means of storage is feasible for heating, it is not practical for transportation because the pressurized metal tanks used for storing hydrogen gas for transportation are very expensive. 

A potentially more efficient method of storing hydrogen is in hydrides. Hydrides are chemical compounds of hydrogen and other materials. Research is currently being conducted on magnesium hydrides. Certain metal alloys such as magnesium nickel, magnesium copper, and iron titanium compounds, absorb hydrogen and release it when heated. Hydrides, however, store little energy per unit weight. Current research aims to produce a compound that will carry a significant amount of hydrogen with a high energy density, release the hydrogen as a fuel, react quickly, and be cost-effective. 

A company in Utah, Power Ball Technologies, has developed a process in which sodium metal is pelletized and encapsulated with polyethylene plastic. The pellets can then be containerized, transported, and then opened in a patented hydrogen generator to produce hydrogen gas. According to the company, each gallon of these pellets is capable of producing 1,307 gallons of hydrogen gas, which is an equivalent hydrogen storage density more than 7 times greater by volume than a compressed hydrogen tank storing hydrogen at 3,000 psi. 

The Cost of Hydrogen

Currently the most cost-effective way to produce hydrogen is steam reforming. According to the U.S. Department of Energy, in 1995 the cost was $7.39 per million Btu ($7.00 per gigajoule) in large plant production. This assumes a cost for natural gas of $2.43 per million Btu ($2.30 per gigajoule). This is the equivalent of $0.93 per gallon ($0.24 per liter) of gasoline. The production of hydrogen by electrolysis using hydroelectricity at off peak rates costs between $10.55 to $21.10 per million Btu ($10.00 to $20.00 per gigajoule). 

Hydrogen Research in the United States

Recognizing the potential for hydrogen fuel, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) and private organizations have funded research and development (R&D) programs for several years. DOE has a major effort to develop hydrogen as a major fuel within the next few decades. 


Types of Fuel Cells

Fuel cells are classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This determines the kind of chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind of catalysts required, the temperature range in which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors. These characteristics, in turn, affect the applications for which these cells are most suitable. There are several types of fuel cells currently under development, each with its own advantages, limitations, and potential applications.

What are Direct Methanol Fuel Cells?

Most fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, which can be fed to the fuel cell system directly or can be generated within the fuel cell system by reforming hydrogen-rich fuels such as methanol, ethanol, and hydrocarbon fuels. Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFCs), however, are powered by pure methanol, which is mixed with steam and fed directly to the fuel cell anode.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cells do not have many of the fuel storage problems typical of some fuel cells since methanol has a higher energy density than hydrogen—though less than gasoline or diesel fuel. Methanol is also easier to transport and supply to the public using our current infrastructure since it is a liquid, like gasoline.

Direct Methanol Fuel Cell technology is relatively new compared to that of fuel cells powered by pure hydrogen, and Direct Methanol Fuel Cell research and development are roughly 3-4 years behind that for other fuel cell types.

What are Solid Oxide Fuel Cells?

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) use a hard, non-porous ceramic compound as the electrolyte. Since the electrolyte is a solid, the cells do not have to be constructed in the plate-like configuration typical of other fuel cell types. Solid Oxide Fuel Cells are expected to be around 50-60 percent efficient at converting fuel to electricity. In applications designed to capture and utilize the system's waste heat (co-generation), overall fuel use efficiencies could top 80-85 percent.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells operate at very high temperatures—around 1,000°C (1,830°F). High temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby reducing cost. It also allows Solid Oxide Fuel Cells to reform fuels internally, which enables the use of a variety of fuels and reduces the cost associated with adding a reformer to the system.

Solid Oxide Fuel Cells are also the most sulfur-resistant fuel cell type; they can tolerate several orders of magnitude more sulfur than other cell types. In addition, they are not poisoned by carbon monoxide (CO), which can even be used as fuel. This allows Solid Oxide Fuel Cells to use gases made from coal.

High-temperature operation has disadvantages. It results in a slow startup and requires significant thermal shielding to retain heat and protect personnel, which may be acceptable for utility applications but not for transportation and small portable applications. The high operating temperatures also place stringent durability requirements on materials. The development of low-cost materials with high durability at cell operating temperatures is the key technical challenge facing this technology.

Scientists are currently exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells operating at or below 800°C that have fewer durability problems and cost less. Lower-temperature Solid Oxide Fuel Cells produce less electrical power, however, and stack materials that will function in this lower temperature range have not been identified.

What are Regenerative Fuel Cells?

Regenerative Fuel Cells produce electricity from hydrogen and oxygen and generate heat and water as byproducts, just like other fuel cells. However, Regenerative Fuel Cells can also use electricity from solar power or some other source to divide the excess water into oxygen and hydrogen fuel—this process is called "electrolysis." This is a comparatively young fuel cell technology being developed by NASA and others.

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What is a Power Purchase Agreement? 

A Power Purchase Agreement is a legal agreement wherein our clients agree to buy either the power (electricity) or the power and energy (hot water, steam and/or chilled water for air-conditioning) - or both - directly from us, for a term of 10 to 20 years, where we have installed, own and operate our solar energy systems. 

In nearly every case, once we have installed our solar energy systems at our client's facility, we can immediately reduce our (commercial) client's electricity expenses by 10% over what they were paying for their power electricity from their electric utility.

The right Power Purchase Agreement, solar cogeneration or solar trigeneration energy solution, may save your company hundreds of thousands, and possibly millions of dollars over the term of the agreement.  

Simultaneously, having the wrong or poorly drafted PPA can cost your company thousands or millions of dollars.  You wouldn't consult a brain surgeon to treat your child's broken bone!  Selecting the wrong attorneys, law firm or team to promulgate or re-negotiate your Power Purchase Agreement can leave you "powerless" and penniless - and still requiring the skills and expertise of competent and qualified professionals to resolve the situation. 

Because a Power Purchase Agreement is at the "heart" and underlying foundation of our projects, we can help your business with the selection and oversight of PPA's. 

We can help your city or community create a Municipal Utility District or Public Utility District that may then qualify for our very competitively priced energy and electricity rates. Now is the time for cities, municipal and governmental clients to consider having our company install one of our renewable power and energy systems that will generate "clean" power and energy, lower costs, and avoid the coming electricity shortages and grid congestion problems!  

Products and services provided by us include the following power and energy project development services: 

• Project Engineering Feasibility & Economic Analysis Studies  

• Engineering, Procurement and Construction

• Environmental Engineering & Permitting 

• Project Funding & Financing Options; including Equity Investment, Debt Financing, Lease and Municipal Lease

• Shared/Guaranteed Savings Program with No Capital Investment from Qualified Clients 

• Project Commissioning 

• 3rd Party Ownership and Project Development

• Long-term Service Agreements

• Operations & Maintenance 

• Green Tag (Renewable Energy Credit, Carbon Dioxide Credits, Emission Reduction Credits) Brokerage Services; Application and Permitting

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Photo courtesy of Alaska Image Library. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

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How we make and distribute electricity is changing! 

The electric power generation, transmission and distribution system (the electric "grid") is changing and evolving from the electric grid of the 19th and 20th centuries, which was inefficient, highly-polluting, very expensive and “dumb.”  

The "old" way of generating and distributing energy resembles this slide:

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American Energy Plan
www.AmericanEnergyPlan.com

Wind Power Generation
www.WindPowerGeneration.com

Zero Emission Energy
www.ZeroEmissionEnergy.com

Zero Emission Power
www.ZeroEmissionPower.com

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We support the Renewable Energy Institute by donating a portion of our profits to the Renewable Energy Institute in their efforts to reduce fossil fuel use through renewable energy and their goals to end fossil fuel pollution by reducing/eliminating Carbon Emissions, Carbon Dioxide Emissions and Greenhouse Gas Emissions.

The Renewable Energy Institute is "Changing The Way The World Makes and Uses Energy by Providing Research & Development, Funding and Resources That Creates Sustainable Energy via 'Carbon Free Energy,' 'Clean Power Generation' and 'Pollution Free Power' Through Expanding the use of Renewable Energy Technologies."

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